Improved methane monooxygenase enzymes

ABSTRACT

Improved soluble methane monooxygenases and soluble methane monooxygenase systems are provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional application62/529,648, filed Jul. 7, 2017; U.S. provisional application 62/542,838,filed Aug. 9, 2017; and U.S. provisional application 62/566,733, filedOct. 2, 2017, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety, including any drawings.

This invention was made with government support under Department ofEnergy Agreement DE-AR0000432, awarded by the Advanced Research ProjectsAgency-Energy (ARPA-E). The government has certain rights in theinvention.

FIELD

The technology provided herein relates to engineered enzymes applicablefor industrial biotechnology. In particular, the technology relates toimproved soluble methane monooxygenases and soluble methanemonooxygenase systems.

BACKGROUND

Recent technological advances in synthetic biology have demonstrated thepower and versatility of enzymatic pathways in living cells to convertorganic molecules into industrial products. The petrochemical processesthat currently manufacture these industrial products may be replaced bybiotechnological processes that can often provide the same products at alower cost and with a lower environmental impact. The discovery of newpathways and enzymes that can operate and be engineered in geneticallytractable microorganisms will further advance synthetic biology.

Sugar, including simple sugars, starches, carbohydrates, and sugaralcohols, is often used as a raw material for biological fermentations.But, sugar is relatively expensive as a raw material, which severelylimits the economic viability of any fermentation process that usessugar as a raw material. When using biological fermentation to producechemicals, companies often must limit themselves to the production ofonly select chemicals due to the high cost of sugar.

Other raw materials may be used to produce chemicals. Short alkanes,such as methane and ethane, are significantly less expensive as rawmaterials than sugar. Given the enormous supply of natural gas and theemergence of renewable methane-production technologies, short alkanesare expected to remain inexpensive for decades to come. Industrialproducts made by engineered microorganisms from short alkanes would beless expensive to manufacture than those made by sugar and should remainso for decades.

Any biological system capable of converting short alkanes intoindustrial products must include an enzyme that can activate the alkane.Naturally occurring bacteria that can activate methane use dioxygen toconvert methane to methanol. An example of an enzyme capable ofactivating methane belongs to the class of enzymes known as solublediiron monooxygenases.

There has been some difficulty expressing soluble diiron monooxygenasesin industrially relevant hosts. There are many desirable factorsinvolved in optimizing an enzyme for industrial use, such as highturnover rate, specificity for the desired substrate (and against anyunintended substrates), solubility, high substrate binding affinity,reduced product inhibition, cofactor preference, and others. Successfulfunctional expression of soluble diiron monooxygenases is critical forbeing able to use inexpensive raw materials in industrially relevanthosts.

What is needed is a soluble diiron monooxygenase with improved functionthat can be expressed in an industrially relevant host.

SUMMARY

The invention provided herein is drawn to improved soluble diironmonooxygenase mutants that can be functionally expressed in industriallyrelevant hosts.

Some embodiments provide at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprising at least one mutant subunit, wherein theat least one mutant subunit comprises one or more mutations, such thatthe activity of the mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system isgreater than the activity of a wild-type soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit,wherein the mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit comprises one or moremutations at one or more residue position(s): 3, 14, 25, 26, 32, 33, 35,42, 44, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 130, 135, 154, 162, 163, 168, 216, 251,262, 263, 264, 277, 316, 322, 330, 347, 356, 374, 375, 381, 387, 393,399, 405, 419, 420, 422, 431, 432, 433, 434, 434, 444, 453, 456, 459,469, 470, 475, 480, 485, 493, 504, 505, 510, 513, 515, 525, and/or 526,wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:3. In some embodiments, the one or more mutations comprisessubstitutions at one or more of residue position(s): L3P, L14P, A25S,Q26G, L32P, Q33K, Q33R, F35L, N42R, T44A, T44S, A53G, N54K, N54L, E55A,E55S, T56A, T56G, K57G, K57S, K57T, K61A, K61R, A130C, A130G, A130H,A130T, N135S, V154L, G162C, Q163F, H168G, L216M, Y251M, Y251W, A262E,S263Q, A264Q, T277G, 1316S, G322N, R330T, Y347G, T356C, T356G, T356M,A374E, N375H, D381R, D381S, Y387I, Y387L, R393C, R399D, L405G, R419L,R419S, V420C, Q422E, K431E, G432A, A433G, A433Q, A433T, S434G, S434N,Q444E, G453V, M456V, A459E, I469V, F470I, G475*, E480G, L485E, K493E,K493V, D504E, K505E, D510E, K513R, K513T, L515G, A525Q, F526C, F526G,F526L, and/or F526S, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO: 3. In some embodiments, the one or more mutationsconsist of substitutions at residue position(s):

-   -   a. L3P;    -   b. L3P, L14P;    -   c. L3P, L14P, L32P, F35L, and R330T;    -   d. L3P, L14P, and S434N;    -   e. A25S;    -   f. Q26G;    -   g. L32P and A262E;    -   h. Q33K;    -   i. Q33R;    -   j. N42R and T44A;    -   k. T44S;    -   l. A53G;    -   m. N54K;    -   n. N54L;    -   o. E55A;    -   p. E55S and N375H;    -   q. T56A;    -   r. T56G;    -   s. K57G;    -   t. K57S;    -   u. K57T;    -   v. K61A;    -   w. K61R;    -   x. A130C;    -   y. A130C and R419L;    -   z. A130H;    -   aa. A130T;    -   ab. N135S;    -   ac. V154L;    -   ad. V154L and S263Q;    -   ae. G162C;    -   af. Q163F;    -   ag. H168G;    -   ah. L216M;    -   ai. Y251M;    -   aj. Y251W;    -   ak. A264Q;    -   al. T277G;    -   am. I316S;    -   an. G322N;    -   ao. Y347G;    -   ap. T356C;    -   aq. T356G;    -   ar. T356M;    -   as. A374E;    -   at. D381R;    -   au. D381S;    -   av. Y387I;    -   aw. Y387L;    -   ax. R393C;    -   ay. S399D;    -   az. L405G;    -   ba. R419S;    -   bb. V420C;    -   be. Q422E, K431E, E480G, and D504E;    -   bd. K431E;    -   be. G432A;    -   bf. A433G and A525Q;    -   bg. A433Q;    -   bh. A433T;    -   bi. S434G and K505E;    -   bj. S434N;    -   bk. Q444E;    -   bl. G453V;    -   bm. M456V;    -   bn. A459E and K513T;    -   bo. I469V;    -   bp. F470I and G475*;    -   bq. L485E;    -   br. K493E;    -   bs. K493V;    -   bt. K505E;    -   bu. D510E;    -   by. K513R;    -   bw. K513T;    -   bx. L515G;    -   by. F526C;    -   bz. F526G;    -   ca. F526L; or    -   cb. F526S,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 3.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant accessory protein B, wherein themutant accessory protein B comprises one or more mutations at one ormore residue position(s): 3, 15, 16, 38, 58, 69, 81, 101, 102, 103, 106,110, 112, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 126, 130, 131, 134, 136, 138, and/or139, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ IDNO: 6. In some embodiments, the one or more mutations comprisessubstitutions at one or more residue position(s): V3G, L15M, K16G, V38G,T58E, N69K, A81G, N101G, V102A, V102L, Y103H, L106V, S110A, T112G,T112V, A116S, A116T, T118E, T118G, L119E, G120A, G120E, T124C, T124G,T126S, M130D, M130V, G131S, R134A, R134G, R134W, L136A, D138S, Y139G,Y139S, and/or Y139V, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO: 6. In some embodiments, the one or more mutationsconsists of a substitution at residue position(s):

-   -   a. V3G;    -   b. L15M;    -   c. K16G;    -   d. V38G;    -   e. T58E and T118E;    -   f. N69K;    -   g. A81G;    -   h. N101G;    -   i. V102A;    -   j. V102L;    -   k. Y103H;    -   l. L106V;    -   m. S110A;    -   n. T112G;    -   o. T112V;    -   p. A116S;    -   q. A116T;    -   r. T118G;    -   s. L119E;    -   t. G120A;    -   u. G120E;    -   v. T124C;    -   w. T124G;    -   x. T126S;    -   y. M130D;    -   z. M130V;    -   aa. G131S;    -   ab. R134A;    -   ac. R134G;    -   ad. R134W;    -   ae. L136A;    -   af. D138S;    -   ag. Y139G;    -   ah. Y139S; or    -   ai. Y139V,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 6.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant reductase subunit C, wherein themutant reductase subunit C further comprises one or more mutations atone or more residue position(s): 17, 28, 38, 44, 45, 49, 58, 62, 64, 69,74, 87, 90, 97, 98, 100, 110, 111, 116, 119, 125, 133, 135, 138, 143,144, 152, 153, 155, 157, 174, 180, 184, 191, 196, 204, 208, 209, 211,213, 216, 222, 235, 236, 238, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 279, 281,286, 288, 308, 324, 329, and/or 330, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 7. In some embodiments, the one ormore mutations comprises substitutions at one or more residueposition(s): L17R, L17Q, I28G, L38G, E44G, E44R, G45R, T49L, D58K, K62L,C64A, C64Q, L69A, E74R, K87L, L90Q, T97V, H98G, R100G, E110R, A111V,L116V, V119C, Q125L, D133V, C135T, R138Q, E143K, P144C, I152S, P153H,T155A, V157R, E174A, L180S, R184G, N191D, G196V, P204S, F208Q, G209W,K211V, R213G, A216V, A222G, R235G, Q236M, Q238G, W240E, A242V, P243G,N244G, E245D, E245M, T246M, C279S, W281R, D286T, E288V, N308V, C324G,S329G, and/or R330W, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO: 7. In some embodiments, the one or more mutationsconsist of a substitution at residue position(s):

-   -   a. L17R and W240E;    -   b. L17Q;    -   c. I28G;    -   d. L38G;    -   e. E44R;    -   f. E44G;    -   h. G45R and S329G;    -   i. T49L;    -   j. D58K;    -   k. K62L;    -   l. C64Q;    -   m. C64A and R330W;    -   n. L69A;    -   o. E74R;    -   p. K87L and Q236M;    -   q. L90Q and A216V;    -   r. T97V;    -   s. H98G;    -   t. R100G and E288V;    -   u. E110R and N308V;    -   v. A111V;    -   w. L116V and K211V;    -   x. V119C;    -   y. Q125L;    -   z. D133V and D286T;    -   aa. C135T;    -   ab. R138Q and F208Q;    -   ac. E143K and P144C;    -   ad. I152S;    -   ae. P153H;    -   af. T155A and C279S;    -   ag. V157R;    -   ah. L180S;    -   ai. R184G;    -   aj. N191D;    -   ak. N196V;    -   al. P204S;    -   am. G209W;    -   an. R213G and W281R;    -   ao. A222G;    -   ap. R235G;    -   aq. Q238G;    -   ar. A242V;    -   as. P243G and E245D;    -   at. N244G;    -   au. E245M;    -   av. T246M; or    -   aw. C324G,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 7.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant hydroxylase beta subunit,wherein the mutant hydroxylase beta subunit comprises one or moremutations at one or more residue position(s): 32, 36, 46, 47, 58, 64,87, 93, 109, 133, 143, 146, 151, 155, 157, 160, 162, 202, 167, 182, 183,184, 186, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216,217, 220, 222, 224, 225, 226, 230, 233, 236, 239, 242, 244, 250, 256,260, 266, 269, 270, 272, 273, 276, 281, 291, 303, 304, 305, 306, 308,310, 311, 314, 318, 322, 325, 328, 329, 330, 333, 335, 336, 356, 364,and/or 372, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect toSEQ ID NO: 4. In some embodiments, the one or more mutations comprisessubstitutions at one or more residue position(s): N32V, G36L, L46V,T47H, T47V, P58N, A64G, T87V, V93G, Y109A, Y109E, Y109F, Y109V, I133S,E143T, N146R, A151G, N155G, Y157W, F160K, F160M, F160T, F160V, A162T,202, A167Q, W182M, G183A, G183S, F184S, K186N, A201G, K202A, K202Q,K202R, K202S, I203V, V204S, G206E, D208A, E209R, T211I, A212G, V213G,V213W, P214V, A216G, E217L, N220V, E222R, Y224M, K225G, S226G, A230G,G233L, G233R, G233W, Q236G, Q236V, Q236W, F239L, N242G, N242P, N242V,S244G, A250C, F256W, V260C, Q266V, A269G, P270R, F272K, G273T, G273V,L276V, I281G, A291T, L303G, G304A, D305A, D305G, D305L, D305R, D305W,D306E, D306Q, D306R, E308G, S310R, S310W, D311A, D311G, R314G, R314H,R314Q, R318G, R3181, G322R, L325G, T328G, I329W, A330R, R333V, F335G,M336G, L356G, I364G, and/or D372W, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 4. In some embodiments, the one ormore mutations consist of a substitution at residue position(s):

-   -   a. N32V;    -   b. G36L;    -   c. L46V;    -   d. T47H and A151G;    -   e. T47V;    -   f. P58N;    -   g. A64G;    -   h. T87V;    -   i. V93G;    -   j. Y109A;    -   k. Y109E;    -   l. Y109F;    -   m. Y109V;    -   n. I133S;    -   o. E143T;    -   p. N146R;    -   q. N155G;    -   r. Y157W;    -   s. F160K;    -   t. F160M;    -   u. F160T;    -   v. F160V;    -   w. A162T and K202Q;    -   x. A167Q;    -   y. W182M;    -   z. G183A;    -   aa. G183S;    -   ab. F184S;    -   ac. K186N;    -   ad. A201G and G233R;    -   ae. K202A;    -   af. K202R and A203G;    -   ag. K202S;    -   ah. I203V and G273T;    -   ai. V204S;    -   aj. G206E;    -   ak. D208A and R3181;    -   al. E209R;    -   am. T2111;    -   an. A212G and A330R;    -   ao. A212G;    -   ap. V213G;    -   aq. V213W;    -   ar. P214V;    -   as. A216G and G273V;    -   at. E217L;    -   au. N220V;    -   av. E222R and D305L;    -   aw. Y224M;    -   ax. K225G and R333V;    -   ay. S226G;    -   az. G233L;    -   ba. G233W;    -   bb. Q236G;    -   be. Q236V;    -   bd. Q236W;    -   be. F239L;    -   bf. N242G;    -   bg. N242P and A291T;    -   bh. N242V;    -   bi. S244G and I281G;    -   bj. A250C and L325G;    -   bk. F256W;    -   bl. V260C;    -   bm. Q266V;    -   bn. A269G;    -   bo. P270R and D306Q;    -   bp. F272K;    -   bq. L276V;    -   bs. L303G;    -   bt. G304A;    -   bu. D305A;    -   by. D305G;    -   bw. D305R;    -   bx. D305W;    -   by. D306E;    -   bz. D306R;    -   ca. E308G and R314H;    -   cb. S310R;    -   cc. S310W;    -   cd. D311A;    -   ce. D311G;    -   cf. R314G;    -   cg. R314Q,    -   ch. R318G;    -   ci. G322R;    -   cj. T328G;    -   ck. 1329W;    -   cl. F335G;    -   cm. M336G;    -   cn. L356G;    -   co. 1364G; or    -   cp. D372W,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 4.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant hydroxylase gamma subunit,wherein the mutant hydroxylase gamma subunit comprises one or moremutations at one or more residue position(s): 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23,24, 27, 29, 31, 33, 34, 41, 43, 45, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 63, 66,67, 70, 79, 80, 103, 112, 116, 117, 127, 129, 136, 144, 147, 153, 154,156, 165, and/or 166, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO: 5. In some embodiments, the one or more mutationscomprises substitutions at one or more residue position(s): D10R, D10V,N17F, N17W, K18A, K18E, A20G, Q21H, N23A, N23D, N23E, N23G, N23L, N23V,T24E, T24V, K27G, K27Q, K27R, A29G, M31W, K33V, Q34A, Q34K, T41G, F43K,F43S, F43V, N45G, S46G, S46I, Y47S, Y47T, D50G, N51G, N51V, D52G, Y53C,156L, K63G, K63T, V66D, L67E, R70E, R70G, R70V, H79E, K80M, D103G,I112V, Q116S, 1117L, Y127F, L129G, G136Q, G136S, N144D, N144G, N144V,Y147D, E153G, E154G, R156A, H165G, L166E, and/or L166G, wherein theresidue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 5. In someembodiments, the one or more mutations consist of a substitution atresidue position(s):

-   -   a. D10R;    -   b. D10V;    -   c. N17F;    -   d. N17W;    -   e. K18A;    -   f. K18E;    -   g. A20G;    -   h. Q21H and I112V;    -   i. N23A;    -   j. N23D;    -   k. N23E;    -   l. N23G;    -   m. N23L;    -   n. N23L and A117L;    -   o. N23V;    -   p. T24E;    -   q. T24V and F43:    -   r. K27G;    -   s. K27Q;    -   t. K27R;    -   u. A29G;    -   v. A29G and E154G;    -   w. M31W;    -   x. K33V;    -   y. Q34A;    -   z. Q34K;    -   aa. T41G;    -   ab. F43S;    -   ac. F43V;    -   ad. N45G;    -   ae. S46G;    -   af. S46I;    -   ag. Y47S;    -   ah. Y47T;    -   ai. D50G;    -   aj. N51G;    -   ak. N51V;    -   al. D52G;    -   am. Y53C;    -   an. I56L;    -   ao. K63G;    -   ap. K63T;    -   aq. V66D;    -   ar. L67E;    -   as. R70E;    -   at. R70G;    -   au. R70V;    -   av. H79E;    -   aw. K80M;    -   ax. D103G and L166E;    -   ay. Q116S;    -   az. Y127F;    -   ba. L129G;    -   bb. G136Q;    -   be. G136S;    -   bd. N144D;    -   be. N144G;    -   bf. N144V;    -   bg. Y147D;    -   bh. E153G;    -   bi. E154G;    -   bj. R156A;    -   bk. H165G; or    -   bl. L166G,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 5.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant subunit D (mmoD), wherein themutant subunit D further comprises one or more mutations at one or moreresidue position(s): 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24,27, 40, 60, 74, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92, 93, and/or 96, wherein the residueposition(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 8. In someembodiments, the one or more mutations comprises substitutions at one ormore residue position(s): S4R, A5S, Q7G, P8G, F9G, F9G, S10R, A13E,D14R, F17G, F17G, E18R, P20G, R21L, P22R, A24G, F27V, T40R, E60Q, S74A,T79G, T79S, H80G, E89D, Q90S, A92P, P93A, and/or D96R, wherein theresidue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 8. In someembodiments, the one or more mutations consist of a substitution atresidue position(s):

-   -   a. S4R;    -   b. A5S;    -   c. Q7G;    -   d. P8G;    -   e. F9G;    -   f. S1R;    -   g. A13E;    -   h. D14R;    -   i. F17G;    -   j. E18R;    -   k. P20G;    -   l. R21L;    -   m. P22R;    -   n. A24G;    -   o. F27V;    -   p. T40R;    -   q. E60Q;    -   r. S74A;    -   s. T79G;    -   t. T79S;    -   u. H80G;    -   v. E89D;    -   w. Q90S;    -   x. A92P;    -   y. P93A; or    -   z. D96R,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 8.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant protein folding chaperonegroEL-2, wherein the mutant protein folding chaperone groEL-2 furthercomprises one or more mutations at one or more residue position(s): 109,160, 168, 169, 171, 182, 187, 396, 405, 409, 438, 444, 461, 466, 478,484, 485, 495, 522, 524, and/or 529, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 9. In some embodiments, the one ormore mutations comprises substitutions at one or more residueposition(s): A109E, A109P, G160A, D168V, A169S, G171P, Q182W, L187V,T396L, V405G, V405D, N409G, A438K, D444S, P461V, G466L, A478L, A478R,A484E, A484G, N485T, G495H, V522L, G524T, and/or T529G, wherein theresidue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 9. In someembodiments, the one or more mutations consists of substitutions atresidue position(s):

-   -   a. A109E;    -   b. A109P;    -   c. G160A;    -   d. D168V;    -   e. A169S;    -   f. G171P;    -   g. Q182W;    -   h. L187V;    -   i. T396L;    -   j. V405G;    -   k. V405D;    -   l. N409G;    -   m. A438K;    -   n. D444S;    -   o. P461V;    -   p. G466L;    -   q. A478L;    -   r. A478R;    -   s. A484E;    -   t. A484G;    -   u. N485T;    -   v. G495H;    -   w. V522L;    -   x. G524T; or    -   y. T529G,        wherein the residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ        ID NO: 9.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises or consists of one or more mutantsubunits disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the at least one mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase system comprises or consists of one or moreof a mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit, a mutant hydroxylase betasubunit, a mutant hydroxylase gamma subunit, a mutant accessory proteinB, a mutant reductase subunit C, a mutant subunit D, and/or a mutantprotein folding chaperone groEL-2 as disclosed herein.

A second aspect provides one or more isolated nucleic acids encoding oneor more polypeptides or one or more subunits comprising or consisting ofthe mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase subunits or system disclosedherein. Some embodiments provide one or more vectors comprising orconsisting of the one or more isolated nucleic acids. Some embodimentsprovide one or more host cells comprising or consisting of the one ormore vectors. In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprisesa prokaryotic cell. In some embodiments, the prokaryotic cell comprisesone or more of Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium glutamicum, and/orBacillus methanolicus. In some embodiments, the one or more host cellscomprises Pichia pastoris and/or Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

In some embodiments, at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem can be used to produce one or more chemicals. In someembodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase systemcomprises one or more mutant subunits as set forth herein, wherein theone or more mutant subunits is purified in vitro. In some embodiments,the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system can be usedin vitro to produce one or more chemicals.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 sets forth a schematic overview of the soluble methanemonooxygenase operon of M. capsulatus (Bath).

DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS

The present invention relates to at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system. The at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system may be composed of multiple subunits, each subunitcomprising or consisting of one or more mutations. One or more mutationsin any of the subunits improves activity.

I. Definitions

As used herein, “activity” or “enzyme activity” refers to moles ofsubstrate converted per unit of time. Activity often depends uponconditions and the conditions are sometimes specified. For example,without limitation, activity can be measured using any of the assays setforth in the examples. In some embodiments, activity is measured as setforth in example 1. In some embodiments, activity is measured withrespect to the amount of methanol a particular mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase produces as compared to a wild-type soluble diironmonooxygenase. In some embodiments, the at least one mutant solublediiron monooxygenase system has an increased activity when compared to awild-type soluble diiron monooxygenase system.

As used herein, the terms “protein folding chaperone,” “foldingchaperone,” and “chaperone” refer to one or more proteins that improvethe folding of polypeptide chains into 3-dimensional structures. Proteinfolding chaperones help their substrates, namely other proteins, becomeproperly folded and often more highly soluble. Since most proteins mustbe folded in a particular shape to be functional, the expression ofprotein folding chaperones can assist in the proper assembly of certainenzymes in a cell and thereby can result in an increase in the enzymaticactivity of the substrate proteins.

As used herein, “conservative amino acid substitution” refers to asubstitution in which an amino acid residue is substituted by anotheramino acid residue having a side chain with similar chemical properties(e.g., charge or hydrophobicity.) In general, a conservative amino acidsubstitution should not substantially change the functional propertiesof a protein. The following six groups each contain amino acids that areoften, depending upon context, considered conservative substitutions forone another: 1) Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) Aspartic Acid (D),Glutamic Acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R),Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Alanine (A), Valine (V), and6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).

As used herein, “directed evolution” refers to a method used in proteinengineering that mimics the process of natural selection to evolveproteins or nucleic acids toward a user-defined goal. Directed evolutioncomprises or consists of subjecting a gene to a method generatinggenetic diversity, assaying (screening or selecting) the diversity for aproperty of interest to identify beneficial, neutral, and/or deleteriousmutations, and recombining of a subset of mutations which can then bescreened for improved mutants.

As used herein, “enzyme” or “enzymatically” refers to biologicalcatalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions. Like allcatalysts, enzymes increase the rate of reaction by lowering theactivation energy.

As used herein, “eukaryotic” refers to organisms whose cells have anucleus enclosed within membranes. Eukaryotes belong to the domainEukaryota or Eukarya. Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-boundorganelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus, and inaddition, some cells of plants and algae contain chloroplasts.

As used herein, “homology” or “homologous” refers to the degree ofbiological shared ancestry in the evolutionary history of life. Homologyor homologous may also refer to sequence homology, the biologicalhomology between protein or polynucleotide sequences with respect toshared ancestry as determined by the closeness of nucleotide or proteinsequences. Homology among proteins or polynucleotides is typicallyinferred from their sequence similarity. Alignments of multiplesequences are used to indicate which regions of each sequence arehomologous. The term “percent homology” often refers to “sequencesimilarity.” The percentage of identical residues (percent identity) orthe percentage of residues conserved with similar physiochemicalproperties (percent similarity) e.g. leucine and isoleucine, is usuallyused to quantify homology. Partial homology can occur where a segment ofthe compared sequences has a shared origin.

Homology also refers to multi-gene homology. Thus, homology can alsooccur with respect to operons or gene clusters as basic units, insteadof single genes. Homology can also occur with respect to a system ofproteins instead of a single protein. One skilled in the art would knowhow to use programs such as MultiGeneBlast, a comprehensive BLASTimplementation, to perform homology searches on multigene modules (See,Medema, H., Takano, E., and Breitling R., Detecting Sequence Homology atthe Gene Cluster Level with MultiGeneBlast, Mol Biol Evol. (2013) May;30(5): 1218-1223, which is incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety, including any drawings). In a multi-gene homology, one skilledin the art can search for all genomic loci containing a combination ofcertain genes within the same gene cluster or for only certain genes orproteins of interest performing a specified part or combination ofenzymatic steps. As it refers to a multi-subunit protein complex,“percent identity” is intended to mean the maximum value for the percentidentity between any pairwise combination of amino acid sequences,calculated between all the subunits in one complex measured against allthe subunits in the second complex. The percent identity between twosubunits can be calculated using publicly available computational tools,such as BLASTp from NCBI.

As used herein, “isolated,” “isolating,” or “isolate” refers to aprocess of purification of a nucleic acid from a sample using acombination of physical and chemical methods.

As used herein, “nucleic acid,” “polynucleotide,” or “oligonucleotide”each refer to one or more polymers of nucleic acids and include, but arenot limited to, coding regions, which are transcribed or translated intoa polypeptide or chaperone, appropriate regulatory or control sequences,controlling sequences, e.g., translational start and stop codons,promoter sequences, ribosome binding sites, polyadenylation signals,transcription factor binding sites, termination sequences, regulatorydomains, and enhancers, among others. A polynucleotide need not includeall of its relevant or even complete coding regions on a single polymerand the invention provided herein contemplates having complete orpartial coding regions on different polymers.

As used herein, “mutant,” “mutant subunit,” or “mutations” refers to analteration of the nucleotide sequence of a genome of an organism, virus,or extrachromosomal nucleic acid or other genetic elements.

As used herein, “polypeptide” refers to a polymer consisting of a numberof amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (orthe whole of) a protein molecule.

As used herein, “prokaryotic” refers to a microscopic single-celledorganism that has neither a distinct nucleus with a membrane nor otherspecialized organelles. Prokaryotes include bacteria and cyanobacteria.

As used herein, “soluble diiron monooxygenase” refers to a class ofenzymes and enzyme complexes characterized by a catalytic core of twoiron atoms and the ability to utilize molecular oxygen to catalyzehydroxylation or epoxidation of hydrocarbon bonds. The enzymes typicallyrequire NADH or NADPH as an electron donor. The soluble diironmonooxygenases are usually composed of one or more components and arepresent in the cytoplasm of the cell. Soluble diiron monooxygenasesinclude soluble methane monooxygenases, phenol hydroxylases, toluenemonooxygenases, and alkene monooxygenases (See, Leahy et al., Evolutionof the Soluble Diiron Monoxygenases, FEMS Microbiology Reviews, Vol. 27,p. 449-479, 2003, which is incorporated by reference herein in itsentirety, including any drawings).

As used herein, “soluble diiron monooxygenase system” refers to a systemof proteins that comprises or consists of one or more subunits of asoluble diiron monooxygenase. As used herein, soluble diironmonooxygenase may also refer to, but need not, all components thatincrease the activity of the one or more subunits of the soluble diironmonooxygenase such as, for example, without limitation, one or morechaperone proteins such as one or more groEL2 proteins.

As used herein, “subunit” refers to protein molecule that assembles orcoassembles with other protein molecules to form a protein complex orenzyme. The disclosure is intended to include some or all of thesubunits from any microorganism or combination of microorganisms, asdetermined by one skilled in the art.

As used herein, “vector” refers a nucleic acid molecule used as avehicle to artificially carry foreign genetic material into anothercell, such as a host cell, where the foreign genetic material can bereplicated and/or expressed in the host cell.

As used herein, “wild-type” or “WT” refers to a strain, gene, orcharacteristic that prevails among individuals in natural conditions. Awild-type may be contrasted against strains, genes, or characteristicsthat do not prevail among organisms in natural conditions, such as thosefrom a mutant type.

II. Soluble Diiron Monooxygenase

Some embodiments provide at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprising at least one mutant subunit, wherein theat least one mutant subunit comprises one or more mutations such thatthe activity of the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem is greater than the activity of the wild-type soluble diironmonooxygenase system.

Methanotrophs consume methane as their major carbon source and have anessential role in the global carbon cycle by limiting escape of thegreenhouse gas methane to the atmosphere. To oxidize methane tomethanol, bacteria use soluble methane monooxygenases and particulatemethane monooxygenases.

Bacterial multicomponent monooxygenases are exceptional in their abilityto hydroxylate a broad spectrum of hydrocarbon substrates. Solublemonooxygenases, alkene monooxygenases, phenol hydroxylases, andalkene/aromatic monooxygenases belong to the bacterial multicomponentmonooxygenase superfamily. Soluble diiron monooxygenases may also acceptsubstrates other than alkanes, and in some cases, the enzymes mighthydroxylate a wide range of molecules. One such substrate is thesimplest alkene, ethylene (also known as ethene, C₂H₄), which can beconverted into ethylene oxide. Similarly, propylene is converted intopropylene oxide by soluble diiron monooxygenases. Soluble monooxygenasescontain three protein components, a hydroxylase (MMOH, which is composedof three subunits, the alpha, beta, and gamma, as provided herein), areductase (MMOR), and a regulatory protein (MMOB). MMOD and groEL2 arealso required for optimal catalytic function.

Any mutant subunits disclosed herein may be used and may be mixed andmatched with one another provided only that the at least one mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase system is improved. In some embodiments,the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system comprises orconsists one or more of mutant subunits disclosed herein. In someembodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase systemcomprises or consists of any one or more of a mutant hydroxylase alphasubunit, a mutant hydroxylase beta subunit, a mutant hydroxylase gammasubunit, a mutant accessory protein B, a mutant reductase subunit C, amutant subunit D, and/or a mutant protein folding chaperone groEL-2.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises or consists of at least one mutantsubunit from one or more organisms. In some embodiments, the at leastone mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system comprises or consists ofmore than one subunits coming from one or more than one organism. Inother words, any combination of mutant subunits from any organism may beused and the one or more organisms may be mixed and matched with oneanother provided only that the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system is improved.

In some embodiments, the one or more organisms comprises or consists ofone or more of Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath), Methylocystis sp. strainM, Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, Rhodococcus rhodochrous B-276,Ralstonia pickettii PKO 1, Pseudomonas mendocina KR1, Xanthobacter sp.Py2, Pseudomonas sp. strain JS 150, and/or Pseudomonas sp. strain CF600.In some embodiments, the one or more organisms comprises or consists ofone or more organisms from Table O.

TABLE O Size % % % Accession Gene (aa) Enzyme Identity DissimilarityGaps Organism no. mmoX 527 sMMO — — — Methylococcus M90050 capsulatus(Bath) mmoX 526 sMMO 82 4 17.5 0.2 Methylocystis sp. strain M U81594mmoX 525 sMMO 81.2 18.6 0.2 Methylosinus X55394 trichosporium OB3b amoC501 AMO 34.2 61.6 4.3 Rhodococcus D37875 rhodochrous B-276 tbuA1 501T3MO 17.9 74.2 7.9 Ralstonia pickettii PKO1 U04052 tmoA 500 T4MO 17.974.0 8.0 Pseudomonas mendocina M65106 KR1 aamA 497 AMO 17.9 73.8 8.2Xanthobacter sp. Py2 AJ006979 tbmD 513 T2MO 17.4 74.8 7.8 Pseudomonassp. strain L40033 JS150 dmpN 517 PH 17.0 73.7 9.3 Pseudomonas sp. strainM60276 CF600 mmoY 389 sMMO — — — Methylococcus M90050 capsulatus (Bath)mmoY 395 sMMO 60.0 38.5 1.5 Methylocystis sp. strain M U81594 mmoY 395sMMO 58.7 39.7 1.5 Methylosinus X55394 trichosporium OB3b amoA 343 AMO25.1 66.4 8.5 Rhodococcus D37875 rhodochrous B-276 tbuA2 329 T3MO 15.478.5 6.1 Ralstonia pickettii PKO1 U04052 dmpL 331 PH 13.3 79.0 7.7Pseudomonas sp. strain M60276 CF600 tbmB 336 T2MO 12.9 81.7 5.4Pseudomonas sp. strain L40033 JS150 tmoE 327 T4MO 12.0 81.6 6.4Pseudomonas mendocina M65106 KR1 mmoB 141 sMMO — — — MethylococcusM90050 capsulatus (Bath) mmoB 138 sMMO 65.7 32.9 1.4 Methylocystis sp.strain M U81594 mmoB 138 sMMO 65.7 32.9 1.4 Methylosinus X55394trichosporium OB3b tbuV 104 T3MO 22.0 73.4 4.6 Ralstonia pickettii PKO1U04052 dmpM 90 PH 20.6 72.2 7.2 Pseudomonas sp. strain M60276 CF600 amoB117 AMO 20.2 74.2 5.6 Rhodococcus D37875 rhodochrous B-276 tmoD 103 T4MO19.3 75.2 5.5 Pseudomonas mendocina M65106 KR1 tbmC 89 T2MO 18.8 74.07.3 Pseudomonas sp. strain L40033 JS150 mmoC 348 sMMO — — —Methylococcus M90050 capsulatus (Bath) mmoC 343 sMMO 50.1 47.8 2.0Methylocystis sp. strain M U81594 mmoC 340 sMMO 41.8 51.4 6.8Methylosinus S81887 trichosporium OB3b amoD 342 AMO 28.5 63.7 7.9Rhodococcus D37875 rhodochrous B-276 dmpP 353 PH 25.8 65.8 8.4Pseudomonas sp. strain M60276 CF600 tmoF 326 T4MO 25.5 64.8 9.7Pseudomonas mendocina M95045 KR1 tbmF 355 T2MO 23.2 69.5 7.3 Pseudomonassp. strain L40033 JS150 tbuC 334 T3MO 22.7 69.0 8.2 Ralstonia pickettiiPKO1 U04052

In some embodiments, the one or more organisms comprises or consists ofMethylococcus capsulatus (Bath) (See, Coufal, D.; Blazyk, J;Whittington, D; Wu, W.; Rosensweig, A.; and Lippard, S., Sequencing andAnalysis of the Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) soluable methanemonooxygenase genes (2000) Eur. J. Biochem. 267, 2174-2185, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety herein, including anydrawings). One of the most well-studied methane monooxygenases is fromMethylococcus capsulatus (Bath). (See, for example, PetroleumBiotechnology by Vazquez-Duhalt and Quintero-Romero in 2004, which isincorporated by reference herein in its entirety, including anydrawings). FIG. 1 sets forth a schematic overview of the soluble methanemonooxygenase operon of M. capsulatus.

III. Hydroxylase

MMOH from M. capsulatus is approximately 245 kD and is a non-heme,oxo-bridged diiron catalytic cluster which catalyzes dioxygen-dependentoxidation-hydroxylation reactions within diiron centers. MMOH is amulti-subunit dimeric (α₂β_(2γ2) or α₂β₂ protein, where each α-subunithosts the diiron center. The carboxylate-bridged diiron center is thelocus for O₂ activation and subsequent substratehydroxylation/epoxidation. The diiron center is similar to those in theR2 subunit of ribonucleotide reductase, ferritin, stearoyl acyl carrierprotein, desaturase, and the aging-related protein Clk1.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit. Insome embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem comprises a mutant hydroxylase beta subunit. In some embodiments,the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system comprises amutant hydroxylase gamma subunit.

The hydroxylase alpha, hydroxylase beta, and hydroxylase gamma proteinsare also referred to as MMOX, MMOY, MMOZ, respectively. The hydroxylasealpha protein from M. capsulatus is approximately 60.6 kD. Thehydroxylase beta protein from M. capsulatus is approximately 45.1 kD.The hydroxylase gamma protein from M. capsulatus is approximately 19.8kD. The proteins are respectively encoded by the mmoX, mmoY, and mmoZgenes.

IV. The Regulatory Protein (Accessory Protein B)

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant accessory protein B. Accessoryprotein B from M. capsulatus is a 15.8 kD protein that acts withoutco-factors. The MMOB/DmpM family comprises monooxygenase components suchas the methane monooxygenase (EC:1.14.13.25) regulatory protein B. Thefamily also includes DmpM or Phenol hydroxylase (EC: 1.14.13.7) proteincomponent P2, a protein that lacks redox co-factors and is required foroptimal turnover of phenol hydroxylase. When the accessory protein B ispresent at a low concentration, it converts methane monooxygenase froman oxidase to a hydroxylase and stabilizes intermediates required forthe activation of dioxygen.

Accessory protein B is required to couple electron consumption withsubstrate hydroxylation at the catalytic diiron center of thehydroxylase. When accessory protein B binds the hydroxylase, it triggerssimultaneous conformational changes that modulate oxygen and methaneaccess as well as proton delivery to the diiron center. Accessoryprotein B binds to the “canyon” of the hydroxylase (Asp 36-Leu 129) andcompetitively inhibits binding of reductase subunit C.

V. The Reductase

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant reductase subunit C.

Reductase subunit C from M. capsulatus is a 38.4 kD protein. Electrontransfer to the diiron (III) centers in the hydroxylase involves NADHreductions of an oxidized FAD cofactor to a hydroquinone form, followedby the ferredoxin domain sequentially shuttling two electrons from thereduced FAD cofactor to the diiron center in the hydroxylase (See,Electron Transfer Control in Soluble Methane Monooxygenase; Weixue Wang,Roxana E. Iacob, Rebecca P. Luoh, John R. Engen, and Stephen J. Lippard;J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2014, 136 (27), pp 9754-9762, which is incorporatedin its entirety herein, including any drawings). The isolated domainshave stable structures and retain biochemical properties of the twodomains in full-length reductase subunit C.

VI. Subunit D, MMOD

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant MMOD or mutant subunit D. Thecluster of genes that encode for the three characterized proteincomponents of the hydroxylase, accessory protein subunit B, and thereductase subunit C also contains an additional open reading frame, orfY, which codes for a protein, MMOD, of unknown function. Despite thefact that there is no known function of MMOD, mutations in MMOD canimprove the activity of a monooxygenase. MMOD is expressed in a nativeorganism although at significantly lower levels that other monooxygenaseproteins. Cofactorless MMOD is a potent inhibitor of solublemonooxygenase activity and binds to hydroxylase with a similar affinityto that of accessory protein subunit B and the reductase subunit C.

VII. GroEL-2

In some embodiments, the at least mutant one soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises a mutant protein folding chaperonegroEL-2. GroEL-2 belongs to the chaperonin family of molecularchaperones and is found in a large number of bacteria. The groEL-2 geneis often located in close proximity to the monooxygenase operon andgroEL-2 probably has a special relationship to the methanemonooxygenase. GroEL-2 is thought to be required for the proper foldingof many proteins and some bacteria, including M. capsulatus, have morethan one gene homologous to groEL-2. Within the cell, the process ofgroEL-2-mediated protein folding involves multiple rounds of binding,encapsulation, and release of substrate protein.

VIII. Directed Evolution

In some embodiments, the activity of the at least one mutant solublediiron monooxygenase system is improved through directed evolution. Anymethod of directed evolution well-known to one skilled in the art iswithin the scope of the invention.

Directed evolution consists of iterations of three steps: generatinggenetic diversity, assaying (screening or selecting) the diversity for aproperty of interest to identify beneficial, neutral, and/or deleteriousmutations, and recombining a subset of mutations which can then bescreened for improved mutants. Genetic variants may be used as templateseither for additional rounds of recombination of the subset of mutationsor for the discovery of additional genetic diversity of the at least onemutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system. The methods used to generategenetic diversity, to assay the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system, and to recombine the mutations may vary.

Many methods are available for the generation of genetic diversity in aDNA sequence: chemical mutagenesis, ultraviolet-light-inducedmutagenesis, error-prone PCR, directed saturation mutagenesis, andothers. Any combination of these methods may also be used according tothe invention. In some embodiments, each mutation is measured for itseffects on the activity of at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system, which may be measured along one or more featuresor dimensions. For example, amino acid sequence variants of theprotein(s) can be prepared by mutations in the DNA. Methods formutagenesis and nucleotide sequence alterations include, for example,Kunkel, (1985) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:488-92; Kunkel, et al., (1987)Meth Enzymol 154:367-82; U.S. Pat. No. 4,873,192; Walker and Gaastra,eds. (1983) Techniques in Molecular Biology (MacMillan PublishingCompany, New York) and the references cited therein. Guidance regardingamino acid substitutions not likely to affect biological activity of theprotein is found, for example, in the model of Dayhoff, et al., (1978)Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure (Natl Biomed Res Found,Washington, D.C.). Each of the above-cited references is incorporated byreference in its entirety herein, including any drawings.

Furthermore, any of the one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors(or any others mentioned herein or any of the regulatory elements thatcontrol or modulate expression thereof) disclosed herein may beoptimized by genetic/protein engineering techniques, such as directedevolution or rational mutagenesis. Directed evolution allows one ofordinary skill in the art to optimize the enzymes for expression andactivity in yeast, bacteria, or any other suitable cell or organism.

Directed evolution is exemplified herein to discover mutations forsoluble methane monooxygenase from Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) whenfunctionally expressed inside E. coli cells. As set forth in theexamples, a large mutant library was cloned and assayed using anon-fluorescent substrate that became fluorescent when hydroxylated bythe activity of the enzyme. Any mutant that displayed improved activitywas reassayed using the same and/or additional methods or conditions.Improved variants were then subjected to DNA sequencing to identify themutations that caused increased activity.

Once a group of clones was identified as having improved activity,clones were sequenced to identify mutation(s) that were generated. DNAcan be sequenced using any technique known to one skilled in the art,such as, for example, without limitation, Sanger sequencing.Higher-throughput techniques, such as those offered by Illumina orPacific Biosciences, may also be utilized.

In some embodiments, combinations of mutations that display desirableactivity are combined to form at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system that has particularly favorable activity. Once therecombined mutants have been constructed, one can assay these variantsusing the same techniques that were used previously to assay theoriginal mutant libraries or using other assays that measure the atleast one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system's properties. Thecombinations can be tested either by deliberately constructingspecifically desired clones or by recombining mutations randomly in aone pot reaction. Methods of DNA construction for recombinationlibraries are well-known to those skilled in the art and include avariety of techniques, including SOE PCR, transfer PCR, and Quikchangemutagenesis (Agilent Technologies).

IX. Nucleic Acids and Vectors and Integration

Some aspects provide one or more isolated nucleic acids encoding any ofthe soluble diiron monooxygenase systems provided herein. In someembodiments, the one or more nucleic acids comprise one or more vectors.In some embodiments, the one or more nucleic acids are integrated intohost cells.

The one or more nucleic acids can be introduced into the one or morehost cells by any method known to one of skill in the art withoutlimitation (See, for example, Hinnen et al. (1978) Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 75:1292-3; Cregg et al. (1985) Mol. Cell. Biol. 5:3376-3385;Goeddel et al. eds, 1990, Methods in Enzymology, vol. 185, AcademicPress, Inc., CA; Krieger, 1990, Gene Transfer and Expression—ALaboratory Manual, Stockton Press, NY; Sambrook et al., 1989, MolecularCloning—A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, NY; andAusubel et al., eds., Current Edition, Current Protocols in MolecularBiology, Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley Interscience, NY, eachof which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein, includingany drawings). Exemplary techniques include, but are not limited to,spheroplasting, electroporation, PEG 1000 mediated transformation, andlithium acetate or lithium chloride mediated transformation. In someembodiments, the one or more vectors comprises or consists of anextrachromosomal plasmid. In some embodiments, the one or more vectorscomprises or consists of a chromosomal integration vector that canintegrate the nucleotide sequence into the chromosome of the one or morehost cells.

Expression of the one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors maybe modified. For example, the copy number of the one or more nucleicacids or one or more vectors may be altered by modifying transcription.This can be achieved, for example, by modifying the copy number of thenucleotide sequence of the one or more nucleic acids or one or morevectors (e.g., by using or generating a higher or lower copy numberexpression vector comprising the nucleotide sequence, by introducingadditional copies of the nucleotide sequence into the genome of the oneor more host cells cell, or by genetically modifying, deleting, ordisrupting the nucleotide sequence in the genome of the one or more hostcells) by changing the order of coding sequences on a polycistronic mRNAof an operon, or by breaking up an operon into individual genes, eachwith its own control elements. The strength of a promoter, enhancer, oroperator to which a nucleotide sequence is operably linked may also bemanipulated, increased, decreased, or different promoters, enhancers, oroperators may be introduced.

Alternatively, or in addition, the copy number of the one or morenucleic acids or one or more vectors may be altered by modifying thelevel of translation of an mRNA. This can be achieved, for example, bymodifying the stability of the mRNA, modifying the sequence of theribosome binding site, modifying the distance or sequence between theribosome binding site and the start codon of the enzyme coding sequence,modifying the entire intercistronic region located “upstream of” oradjacent to the 5′ side of the start codon of the enzyme coding region,stabilizing the 3′-end of the mRNA transcript using hairpins andspecialized sequences, modifying the codon usage of an enzyme, alteringexpression of rare codon tRNAs used in the biosynthesis of the enzyme,and/or increasing the stability of an enzyme, as, for example, viamutation of its coding sequence.

Expression of the one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors maybe modified or regulated by targeting particular genes. For example,without limitation, in some embodiments of the methods described herein,the one or more host cells is contacted with one or more nucleasescapable of cleaving, i.e., causing a break at a designated region withina selected site. In some embodiments, the break is a single-strandedbreak, that is, one but not both strands of the target site is cleaved.In some embodiments, the break is a double-stranded break. In someembodiments, a break inducing agent is any agent that recognizes and/orbinds to a specific polynucleotide recognition sequence to produce abreak at or near a recognition sequence. Examples of break inducingagents include, but are not limited to, endonucleases, site-specificrecombinases, transposases, topoisomerases, and zinc finger nucleases,and include modified derivatives, variants, and fragments thereof.

In some embodiments, the recognition sequence within a selected targetsite can be endogenous or exogenous to a cell's genome. When therecognition site is an endogenous or exogenous sequence, it may be arecognition sequence recognized by a naturally occurring or native breakinducing agent. Alternatively, an endogenous or exogenous recognitionsite could be recognized and/or bound by a modified or engineered breakinducing agent designed or selected to specifically recognize theendogenous or exogenous recognition sequence to produce a break. In someembodiments, the modified break inducing agent is derived from a native,naturally occurring break inducing agent. In other embodiments, themodified break inducing agent is artificially created or synthesized.Methods for selecting such modified or engineered break inducing agentsare known in the art.

In some embodiments, the one or more nucleases is a CRISPR/Cas-derivedRNA-guided endonuclease. CRISPR may be used to recognize, geneticallymodify, and/or silence genetic elements at the RNA or DNA level or toexpress heterologous or homologous genes. CRISPR may also be used toregulate endogenous or exogenous nucleic acids. Any CRISPR/Cas systemknown in the art finds use as a nuclease in the methods and compositionsprovided herein. CRISPR systems that find use in the methods andcompositions provided herein also include those described inInternational Publication Numbers WO 2013/142578 A1, WO 2013/098244 A1and Nucleic Acids Res (2017) 45 (1): 496-508, the contents of which arehereby incorporated in their entireties).

In some embodiments, the one or more nucleases is a TAL-effector DNAbinding domain-nuclease fusion protein (TALEN). TAL effectors of plantpathogenic bacteria in the genus Xanthomonas play important roles indisease, or trigger defense, by binding host DNA and activatingeffector-specific host genes. (See, e.g., Gu et al. (2005) Nature435:1122-5; Yang et al., (2006) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:10503-8;Kay et al., (2007) Science 318:648-51; Sugio et al., (2007) Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. USA 104:10720-5; Romer et al., (2007) Science 318:645-8; Bochet al., (2009) Science 326(5959):1509-12; and Moscou and Bogdanove,(2009) 326(5959):1501, each of which is incorporated by reference intheir entirety). A TAL effector comprises a DNA binding domain thatinteracts with DNA in a sequence-specific manner through one or moretandem repeat domains. The repeated sequence typically comprises 34amino acids, and the repeats are typically 91-100% homologous with eachother. Polymorphism of the repeats is usually located at positions 12and 13, and there appears to be a one-to-one correspondence between theidentity of repeat variable-diresidues at positions 12 and 13 with theidentity of the contiguous nucleotides in the TAL-effector's targetsequence.

The TAL-effector DNA binding domain may be engineered to bind to adesired sequence and fused to a nuclease domain, e.g., from a type IIrestriction endonuclease, typically a nonspecific cleavage domain from atype II restriction endonuclease such as FokI (See, e.g., Kim et al.(1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:1156-1160, which is incorporated byreference in its entirety herein, including any drawings). Other usefulendonucleases may include, for example, HhaI, HindIII, Nod, BbvCI,EcoRI, BglI, and AlwI. Thus, in preferred embodiments, the TALENcomprises a TAL effector domain comprising a plurality of TAL effectorrepeat sequences that, in combination, bind to a specific nucleotidesequence in a target DNA sequence, such that the TALEN cleaves thetarget DNA within or adjacent to the specific nucleotide sequence.TALENS useful for the methods provided herein include those described inWO10/079430 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2011/0145940,which is incorporated by reference herein, including any drawings.

In some embodiments, the one or more of the nucleases is a zinc-fingernuclease (ZFN). ZFNs are engineered break inducing agents comprised of azinc finger DNA binding domain and a break inducing agent domain.Engineered ZFNs consist of two zinc finger arrays each of which is fusedto a single subunit of a non-specific endonuclease, such as the nucleasedomain from the FokI enzyme, which becomes active upon dimerization.

Useful zinc-finger nucleases include those that are known and those thatare engineered to have specificity for one or more sites. Zinc fingerdomains are amenable for designing polypeptides that specifically bind aselected polynucleotide recognition sequence. Thus, they are amenable tomodifying or regulating expression by targeting particular genes.

The one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors can be modified ina number of other ways, including, but not limited to, gene silencing orany other form of genetic modification, expressing a modified form ofthe one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors that exhibitsincreased or decreased solubility in the one or more host cells,expressing an altered form of the expressed one or more nucleic acids orone or more vectors that lacks a domain through which the activity ofthe enzyme is inhibited, expressing a modified form of the expressed oneor more nucleic acids or one or more vectors that has a higher or lowerKcat or a lower or higher Km for a substrate, or expressing one or morepolypeptides from the one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectorsthat is more or less affected by feed-back or feed-forward regulation byanother molecule in the pathway.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system is modified. It will be recognized by one skilledin the art that absolute identity to the at least one mutant solublediiron monooxygenase system is not strictly necessary. For example,changes in a particular gene or polynucleotide comprising a sequenceencoding a polypeptide or an enzyme can be performed and screened foractivity. Such modified or mutated polynucleotides and polypeptides canbe screened for expression or function using methods known in the art.

Those of skill in the art will recognize that, due to the degeneratenature of the genetic code, a variety of polynucleotides differing intheir nucleotide sequences can be used for the at least one mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase system of the disclosure. Due to theinherent degeneracy of the genetic code, other polynucleotides thatencode substantially the same or functionally equivalent polypeptides orsubunits can also be used. The disclosure includes polynucleotides ofany sequence that encode the amino acid sequences of the polypeptidesand proteins of the enzymes utilized in the methods of the disclosure.

In similar fashion, a polypeptide can typically tolerate one or moreamino acid substitutions, deletions, and insertions in its amino acidsequence without loss or significant loss of a desired activity. Thedisclosure includes such polypeptides with different amino acidsequences than the specific proteins described herein so long as themodified or variant polypeptides have an activity that is identical orsimilar to the referenced polypeptide. Accordingly, the at least onemutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system encoded by the one or morenucleic acids or one or more vectors shown herein merely illustrateembodiments of the disclosure.

The disclosure also includes at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system with different amino acid sequences than thespecific monooxygenase systems described herein if the modified orvariant polypeptides have an activity that is desirable yet differentfrom referenced polypeptide. In some embodiments, the at least onemutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system may be altered by modifyingthe gene that encodes the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system so that the expressed systems proteins are more orless active than the wild-type version.

As will be understood by those of skill in the art, it can beadvantageous to modify a coding sequence to enhance expression in aparticular host or one or more host cells. The genetic code is redundantwith 64 possible codons, but most organisms typically use a subset ofthese codons. Codons can be substituted to reflect the preferred codonusage of the host, in a process sometimes called “codon optimization” or“controlling for species codon bias.”

Optimized coding sequences containing codons preferred by a particularprokaryotic or eukaryotic hosts (See, for example, Murray et al., 1989,Nucl Acids Res. 17: 477-508, which is incorporated by reference in itsentirety herein, including any drawings) can be prepared, for example,to increase the rate of translation or to produce recombinant RNAtranscripts having desirable properties, such as a longer half-life, ascompared with transcripts produced from a non-optimized sequence.Translation stop codons can also be modified to reflect preference inthe one or more host cells. For example, typical stop codons for S.cerevisiae and mammals are UAA and UGA, respectively.

In addition, homologs of the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system are encompassed by the disclosure. To determine thepercent identity of two amino acid sequences, or of two nucleic acidsequences, the sequences are aligned for optimal comparison purposes(e.g., gaps can be introduced in one or both of a first and a secondamino acid or nucleic acid sequence for optimal alignment andnon-homologous sequences can be disregarded for comparison purposes).The amino acid residues or nucleotides at corresponding amino acidpositions or nucleotide positions are then compared. When a position inthe first sequence is occupied by the same amino acid residue ornucleotide as the corresponding position in the second sequence, thenthe molecules are identical at that position. The percent identitybetween the two sequences is a function of the number of identicalpositions shared by the sequences, taking into account the number ofgaps, and the length of each gap, which needs to be introduced foroptimal alignment of the two sequences.

It is recognized that residue positions that are not identical oftendiffer by conservative amino acid substitutions. In cases where two ormore amino acid sequences differ from each other by conservativesubstitutions, the percent sequence identity or degree of homology maypractically be adjusted upwards to correct for the conservative natureof the substitution. Means for making this adjustment are well known tothose of skill in the art (See, e.g., Pearson W. R., 1994, Methods inMol Biol 25: 365-89, which is incorporated by reference in its entiretyherein, including any drawings).

Sequence homology and sequence identity for polypeptides is typicallymeasured using sequence analysis software. A typical algorithm usedcomparing a molecule sequence to a database containing a large number ofsequences from different organisms is the computer program BLAST. Whensearching a database containing sequences from a large number ofdifferent organisms, it is typical to compare amino acid sequences.

In addition, genes encoding enzymes homologous to the polypeptidesencoded by the one or more nucleic acids or one or more vectors can beidentified from other fungal and bacterial species or other species ifthey are orthologous or if there is homology between the two chosenspecies. Sources of prokaryotic enzymes that are useful include, but arenot limited to, Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath), Methylocystis sp.strain M, Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, Rhodococcus rhodochrousB-276, Ralstonia pickettii PKO 1, Pseudomonas mendocina KR1,Xanthobacter sp. Py2, Pseudomonas sp. strain JS 150, and/or Pseudomonassp. strain CF600 or any of the one or more organisms from Table O.

Techniques known to those skilled in the art may be suitable to identifyadditional homologous genes and homologous enzymes. Generally, analogousgenes and/or analogous enzymes can be identified by functional analysisand will have functional similarities. As an example, to identifyhomologous or analogous biosynthetic pathway genes, proteins, orenzymes, techniques may include, but are not limited to, cloning a geneby PCR using primers based on a published sequence of a gene/enzyme ofinterest or by degenerate PCR using degenerate primers designed toamplify a conserved region among a gene of interest.

Further, one skilled in the art can use other techniques to identifyhomologous or analogous genes, proteins, or enzymes with functionalhomology or similarity to any of mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystems disclosed herein. Techniques include examining a cell or cellculture for catalytic activity (e.g. as described herein or in Kiritani,K., Branched-Chain Amino Acids Methods Enzymology, 1970, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety herein, including anydrawings), then isolating the enzyme with the activity throughpurification, determining the protein sequence of the enzyme throughtechniques such as Edman degradation, design of PCR primers to thelikely nucleic acid sequence, amplification of the DNA sequence throughPCR, and cloning of the nucleic acid sequence. To identify homologous orsimilar genes and/or homologous or similar proteins, analogous genesand/or analogous proteins, techniques also include comparison of dataconcerning a candidate gene or enzyme with databases such as BRENDA,KEGG, or MetaCYC.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises or consists of a mutant subunit havinghomology to any of the subunits disclosed herein. In some embodiments,the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system comprises orconsists of a mutant subunit having homology of at least about 80%, atleast about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 91%, at least about92%, at least about 93%, at least about 94%, at least about 95%, atleast about 96%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, or at leastabout 99% homology to any of the mutant subunits disclosed herein. Insome embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem comprises or consists of a system having homology of at leastabout 80%, at least about 85%, at least about 90%, at least about 91%,at least about 92%, at least about 93%, at least about 94%, at leastabout 95%, at least about 96%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%,or at least about 99% homology to any one or more of the subunits orgroups of proteins disclosed herein.

The invention is not just limited to subunits and systems of M.capsulatus and subunits and systems other than those from M. capsulatusare intended to be within the scope of the invention. In someembodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase systemcomprises or consists of a mutant subunit from a species other than M.capsulatus having homology to any of the subunits disclosed herein. Insome embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem comprises or consists of a mutant subunit from a species otherthan M. capsulatus having homology of at least about 80%, at least about85%, at least about 90%, at least about 91%, at least about 92%, atleast about 93%, at least about 94%, at least about 95%, at least about96%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, or at least about 99%homology to any of the mutant subunits disclosed herein. In someembodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase systemcomprises or consists of a system from a species other than M.capsulatus having homology of at least about 80%, at least about 85%, atleast about 90%, at least about 91%, at least about 92%, at least about93%, at least about 94%, at least about 95%, at least about 96%, atleast about 97%, at least about 98%, or at least about 99% homology toany one or more of the subunits or groups of proteins disclosed herein.

X. Cells or Host Cells

Cells that can be used may be any cells deemed useful by those of skillin the art. Cells useful in the compositions and methods provided hereininclude archaeal, prokaryotic, or eukaryotic cells. The term cell and/orhost cells may be interchangeable as used throughout this specification.Either a cell or host cell may be modified or unmodified and maycomprise a host that is unmodified and has a native pathway.

In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consists ofone or more prokaryotic cells. In some embodiments, the one or more hostcells comprises or consists of any one of gram-positive, gram-negative,and/or gram-variable bacteria. Examples include, but are not limited to,cells belonging to the genera: Actinobacillus, Agrobacterium,Alicyclobacillus, Anabaena, Anacystis, Anaerobiospirillum, Arthrobacter,Azobacter, Bacillus, Brevibacterium, Chromatium, Clostridium,Corynebacterium, Enterobacter, Erwinia, Escherichia, Gluconobacter,Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Mannheimia, Mesorhizobium,Methylobacterium, Microbacterium, Phormidium, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium,Rhodobacter, Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodospirillum, Rhodococcus, Salmonella,Scenedesmun, Serratia, Shigella, Staphylococcus, Streptomyces,Synnecoccus, and Zymomonas. Examples of strains include, but are notlimited to: Actinobacillus succinogenes, Anaerobiospirillumsucciniciproducens, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus amyloliquefacines,Brevibacterium ammoniagenes, Brevibacterium immariophilum, Clostridiumacetobutylicum, Clostridium beigerinckii, Enterobacter sakazakii,Escherichia coli, Gluconobacter oxydans, Klebsiella oxytoca,Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactococcus lactis, Mannheimiasucciniciproducens, Mesorhizobium loti, Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Pseudomonas mevalonii, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas pudica,Rhizobium etli, Rhodobacter capsulatus, Rhodobacter sphaeroides,Rhodospirillum rubrum, Salmonella enterica, Salmonella typhi, Salmonellatyphimurium, Shigella dysenteriae, Shigella flexneri, Shigella sonnei,Staphylococcus aureus, Streptomyces coelicolor, and Zymomonas mobilis.

In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consists ofarchaeal cells. In some embodiments, archaeal cells include, but are notlimited to: Aeropyrum, Archaeglobus, Halobacterium, Methanococcus,Methanobacterium, Pyrococcus, Sulfolobus, and Thermoplasma. Examples ofarchaea strains include, but are not limited to: Archaeoglobus fulgidus,Halobacterium sp., Methanococcus jannaschii, Methanobacteriumthermoautotrophicum, Thermoplasma acidophilum, Thermoplasma volcanium,Pyrococcus horikoshii, Pyrococcus abyssi, and Aeropyrum pernix.

In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consists ofeukaryotic cells. In some embodiments, the eukaryotic cells include, butare not limited to, fungal cells, algal cells, insect cells, and plantcells. In some embodiments, yeasts useful in the present methodsincluding yeasts that belong to the genera Aciculoconidium,Ambrosiozyma, Arthroascus, Arxiozyma, Ashbya, Aspergillus, Babjevia,Bensingtonia, Botryoascus, Botryozyma, Brettanomyces, Bullera,Bulleromyces, Candida, Citeromyces, Clavispora, Cryptococcus,Cystofilobasidium, Debaryomyces, Dekkara, Dipodascopsis, Dipodascus,Eeniella, Endomycopsella, Eremascus, Eremothecium, Erythrobasidium,Fellomyces, Filobasidium, Galactomyces, Geotrichum, Guilliermondella,Hanseniaspora, Hansenula, Hasegawaea, Holtermannia, Hormoascus,Hyphopichia, Issatchenkia, Kloeckera, Kloeckeraspora, Kluyveromyces,Kondoa, Kuraishia, Kurtzmanomyces, Leucosporidium, Lipomyces,Lodderomyces, Malassezia, Metschnikowia, Mrakia, Myxozyma, Nadsonia,Nakazawaea, Nematospora, Ogataea, Oosporidium, Pachysolen,Phachytichospora, Phaffia, Pichia, Rhodosporidium, Rhodotorula,Saccharomyces, Saccharomycodes, Saccharomycopsis, Saitoella, Sakaguchia,Saturnospora, Schizoblastosporion, Schizosaccharomyces, Schwanniomyces,Sporidiobolus, Sporobolomyces, Sporopachydermia, Stephanoascus,Sterigmatomyces, Sterigmatosporidium, Symbiotaphrina, Sympodiomyces,Sympodiomycopsis, Torulaspora, Trichosporiella, Trichosporon,Trigonopsis, Tsuchiyaea, Udeniomyces, Waltomyces, Wickerhamia,Wickerhamiella, Williopsis, Yamadazyma, Yarrowia, Zygoascus,Zygosaccharomyces, Zygowilliopsis, and Zygozyma, among others.

In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consist ofat least one of Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillusmethanolicus, Pseudomonas putida, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichiapastoris, Pichia methanolica, Salmonella enterica, Corynebacteriumglutamicum, Klebsiella oxytoca, Anaerobiospirillum succiniciproducens,Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens, Rhizobiumetli, Gluconobacter oxydans, Zymomonas mobilis, Lactococcus lactis,Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptomyces coelicolor, Clostridiumacetobutylicum, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Schizosaccharomyces pombe,Kluyveromyces lactis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Aspergillus terreus,Aspergillus niger, and Candida utilis. In some embodiments, the one ormore host cells comprises or consist of Escherichia coli. In someembodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consists of Pichiapastoris. In some embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises orconsists of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In some embodiments, the one ormore host cells comprises or consist of Corynebacterium glutamicum. Insome embodiments, the one or more host cells comprises or consist ofBacillus methanolicus.

XI. Chemicals

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system is expressed in a host cell for production or oneor more chemicals. In some embodiments, the one or more chemicalscomprises or consists of one or more of dicarboxylic acid, malic acid,fumaric acid, succinic acid, malic acid salt, fumaric acid salt,succinic acid salt, L-malic acid, D-malic acid, maleic acid, lacticacid, adipic acid, 1,3-propanediol, 2,3-butanediol, 1,4-butanediol,butadiene, fatty acid derivatives, fatty alcohols, fatty acids, fattyacid esters, fatty acid methyl esters, fatty acid ethyl esters, branchedfatty acids, branched fatty acid derivatives, omega-3 fatty acids,isoprenoids, isoprene, farnesene, farnesane, squalene, squalane,carotenoids, any or all of the amino acids, alanine, arginine,asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, monosodiumglutamate, glutamine, glycine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, ornithine,proline, selenocysteine, serine, tyrosine, epoxides such as ethyleneoxide and propylene oxide, ethanol, propanol, 1-butanol, 2-butanol,isobutanol (2-methylpropan-1-ol), alcohols, alkanes, alkenes, olefins,animal feed additives, mixtures of amino acids, and proteins. Otherexamples of chemicals include, but are not limited to, ethanol,propanol, isopropanol, butanol, fatty alcohols, fatty acid esters, ethylesters, wax esters; hydrocarbons and alkanes such as propane, octane,diesel, Jet Propellant 8 (JP8); terephthalate, 1,3-propanediol,1,4-butanediol, acrylate, adipic acid, c-caprolactone, isoprene,caprolactam, and polymers of these, plus other polymers, such aspolyols, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate (PHB),rubber; commodity chemicals such as lactate, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),3-hydroxypropionate, y-valerolactone, lysine, serine, aspartate,aspartic acid, sorbitol, ascorbate, ascorbic acid, isopentenol,lanosterol, omega-3 DHA, lycopene, itaconate, 1,3-butadiene, ethylene,propylene, succinate, citrate, citric acid, glutamate, malate,3-hydroxypropionic acid (HPA), lactic acid, THF, gamma butyrolactone,pyrrolidones, hydroxybutyrate, glutamic acid, levulinic acid, acrylicacid, malonic acid, chemicals such as carotenoids, isoprenoids, itaconicacid; pharmaceuticals and pharmaceutical intermediates such as7-aminodeacetoxycephalosporanic acid (7-ADCA)/cephalosporin,erythromycin, polyketides, statins, paclitaxel, docetaxel, terpenes,peptides, steroids, omega fatty acids and other such suitable productsof interest.

In some embodiments, the one or more chemicals comprises or consists ofbiofuels, industrial and specialty chemicals, intermediates used to makeadditional products, nutritional supplements, nutraceuticals, polymers,paraffin replacements, personal care products, and pharmaceuticals. Insome embodiments, the one or more chemicals comprises or consists ofnatural and non-natural compounds such as, for example, amino acids,nucleic acids, nucleotides, polynucleotides and all related biologicalmolecules, amino acids and nucleotides that are modified in a waydifferently than they are normally modified in biological systems (suchas, for example, without limitation, non-natural amino acids).

In some embodiments, the one or more chemicals comprises or consists ofmethanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, or naphthol. In some embodiments,the one or more chemicals comprises or consists of succinate, malate,fatty acids, lysine, and/or glutamate. In an embodiment, the one or morechemicals comprises or consist of 3-hydroxypropionate or a polymer of3-hydroxypropionate. In some embodiments, the one or more chemicalsconsists of methanol.

In some embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system comprises one or more mutant subunits as set forthherein, wherein the one or more mutant subunits is purified in vitro. Insome embodiments, the at least one mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem can be used in vitro to produce one or more chemicals.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Mutagenesis of the Hydroxylase Alpha Subunit

A saturation library of mutations in the mmoXgene in pBZ34 (SEQ IDNO: 1) was constructed using degenerate primers. The library wastransformed into a strain of E. coli named NH283 (derived from thecommercially available strain NEB Express via a deletion of the araBADoperon using a chloramphenicol resistance gene and the method ofDatsenko and Wanner (2000)). The library was recovered in SOC for 1 hourat 37° C., 280 rpm, and then spread on LB agar plates supplemented with100 μg/mL spectinomycin.

Colonies were picked into 96-well deep-well plates (Costar), containing400 μL LB supplemented with 100 μg/mL spectinomycin. The plates weresealed with an air-permeable sealing tape and incubated shaking at 37°C., 270 rpm for about 16 hours. Each plate contained several wells withthe strain BZ85 (NH283/pBZ34) as an on-plate control, against which allmutant colonies could be compared. After the 16-hour incubation, eachwell was subcultured into a fresh 96-well deep-well plate, using 25 μLinoculum into 250 μL of LB supplemented with 100 μg/mL spectinomycin, 1mM L-arabinose, 50 μM ferric citrate, and 200 μM L-cysteine. Theseplates were sealed and incubated at 37° C., 270 rpm.

After 3-4 hours, 200 μL from each plate was sampled into a shallow-wellplate and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 6 min. The supernatant was removedand 225 μL of phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was added to each well.Each plate was centrifuged again and the supernatant was removed. Aftera second PBS wash, 200 μL of PBS supplemented with 5 mM coumarin, 0.4%glycerol, and 50 μM ferric citrate was added to each well. The plateswere centrifuged again, covered to prevent evaporation, and placed at37° C. for 16 hours. Then, each plate was measured for fluorescence byexcitation at 360 nm and emission at 460 nm.

Using the fluorescence readings, improved clones were identified by thefollowing method. For each plate, the fluorescence in each well wasnormalized by the average value of the fluorescence in all the controlwells (containing BZ85). Clones that demonstrated significant increasesin fluorescence relative to the control were selected for a secondfluorescence screen to confirm the improved enzyme activity. From thisset, any clone that was above a desirable threshold was sequenced toidentify the mutation that led to improved activity. Additional assaysmay also be performed to test other features of the enzyme.

A subset of the clones was selected for DNA sequencing to identifymutations that improve the activity of the enzyme. Table 1 shows themutation(s) that was identified, along with the relative activity(activity normalized by controls) in the coumarin assay, the positionsbeing numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 3.

TABLE 1 Mutations in the hydroxylase alpha subunit. Mutation(s) ActivityL003P 1.38 L003P, L014P 3.81 L003P, L014P, L032P, F035L, R330T 2.78L003P, L014P, S434N 1.91 A025S 1.74 Q026G 1.20 L032P, A262E 1.24 Q033K1.47 Q033R 1.17 N042R, T044A 1.25 T044S 1.21 A053G 1.28 N054K 1.49 N054L1.86 E055A 1.30 E055S, N375H 1.11 T056A 1.37 T056G 1.72 K057G 1.15 K057S1.33 K057T 1.11 K061A 2.25 K061R 1.98 A130C 2.49 A130G, R419L 2.01 A130H1.78 A130T 1.66 N135S 1.24 V154L 1.80 V154L, S263Q 1.71 G162C 2.86 Q163F1.26 H168G 1.43 L216M 1.12 Y251M 1.10 Y251W 1.24 A264Q 1.44 T277G 1.34I316S 1.14 G322N 1.32 Y347G 1.32 T356C 1.91 T356G 2.27 T356M 1.60 A374E1.41 D381R 1.56 D381S 2.38 Y387I 1.57 Y387L 2.05 R393C 1.33 S399D 1.11L405G 1.63 R419S 1.53 V420C 1.43 Q422E, K431E, E480G, D504E 1.27 K431E1.34 G432A 1.84 A433G, A525Q 1.32 A433Q 1.48 A433T 1.40 S434G, K505E1.22 S434N 1.61 Q444E 1.31 G453V 2.07 M456V 1.44 A459E, K513T 1.27 I469V1.50 F470I, G475* 1.43 L485E 1.43 K493E 1.41 K493V 1.30 K505E 1.28 D510E1.23 K513R 1.25 K513T 1.16 L515G 1.89 F526C 1.33 F526G 1.27 F526L 1.33F526S 1.46

The following describes the method for culturing the strains andmeasuring the bioconversion of methane to methanol. All strains wereinoculated in 1 mL LB Miller supplemented with spectinomycin (100 μg/mL)and grown at 37° C. for 18 hours with shaking at 280 rpm. The culturesgrew to stationary phase and 0.1 mL of these cultures was then used toinoculate two flasks containing sterile 10 mL LB supplemented withspectinomycin (100 μg/mL), arabinose (1 mM), L-cysteine (200 μM), andferric citrate (50 μM). The cultures were grown with shaking at 37° C.until OD600 ˜1.2 (approximately 4.0-4.5 hours). The cells were spun for5 minutes at 4000 rpm, and re-suspended in 10 mL phosphate buffersolution (PBS). This 10 mL was split equally into two glass serumbottles, 5 mL in each. The bottles were then sealed with butyl rubberstoppers. A volume of 60 mL of either methane or air was measured intosyringes and injected through the stopper and into each of the twobottles. The bottles were shaken at 37° C. for 16-25 hours, at whichpoint the supernatant was sampled in order to measure methanolconcentration.

Methanol was measured using a colorimetric assay (Cell Biolabs catalognumber STA-620). Briefly, it measures methanol using an enzymaticreaction that produces hydrogen peroxide, which reacts with acolorimetric probe. 90 μL of a reaction mixture was combined with 10 μLof sample and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes. The composition of theassay mixture is described in Table 2. The absorbance at 570 nm wascompared to a methanol standard curve, and methanol in each sample wasquantified.

TABLE 2 Composition of the reaction mixture for the methanol assayDeionized water (mL) 2.175 10x assay buffer (mL) 0.25 100x Enzymemixture (μL) 25 50x colorimetric probe (μL) 50 Total reaction volume(mL) 2.5

After raw absorbance data was collected, the data were processed asfollows: background absorbance (media only) was subtracted from allsamples, including the calibration samples. Each strain had been testedeither with air injected or with methane injected. The absorbance fromthe air-injected sample was subtracted from the absorbance from themethane-injected sample. This absorbance value was compared with thecalibration curve to determine the amount of methanol.

Some of the clones that were isolated by screening with the coumarinassay described above were subsequently selected for the methanol assay.Alongside these clones, a WT strain was assayed as a control. For eachstrain, the methanol titer was normalized by the OD600 (as a measure ofthe cell density) to measure the cellular productivity (methanol percell). The data shown below in Table 3 has been normalized by this WTstrain in order to show the improvements in methanol productivity,relative to the WT control as the starting point. Positions are numberedwith respect to SEQ ID NO: 3.

TABLE 3 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTmmoX gene. Incubation Time Titer/OD Mutation (hours) (normalized to WT)G162C 24.75 1.67 R330T 24.75 1.30

Example 2: Mutagenesis of the Mutant Accessory Protein B

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the mmoB gene in pBZ34 (SEQ ID NO: 1),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the mmoB gene instead of the mmoX gene. Screening with coumarin asthe substrate or methane as the substrate was performed as describedabove.

Results are shown below in tables 4-5, wherein positions are numberedwith respect to SEQ ID NO: 6.

TABLE 4 Mutations in accessory protein B with improved activity.Mutation(s) Activity V003G 1.31 L015M 1.30 K016G 1.25 V038G 1.25 T058E,T118E 1.24 N069K 1.27 A081G 3.31 N101G 1.27 V102A 1.31 V102L 1.32 Y103H2.02 L106V 1.27 S110A 1.40 T112G 1.50 T112V 1.30 A116S 1.54 A116T 1.49T118G 1.34 L119E 1.26 G120A 1.83 G120E 1.58 T124C 1.31 T124G 1.37 T126S1.44 M130D 1.25 M130V 1.44 G131S 1.39 R134A 1.53 R134G 1.38 R134W 1.37L136A 1.21 D138S 1.29 Y139G 1.28 Y139S 1.30 Y139V 1.28

TABLE 5 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTmmoB gene. Incubation Titer/OD Time (normalized Mutation (hours) to WT)G120E 18.50 1.07

Example 3: Mutagenesis of Mutant Reductase Subunit C

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the mmoC gene in pBZ34 (SEQ ID NO: 1),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the mmoC gene instead of the mmoX gene.

Results are shown below in tables 6-7, wherein positions are numberedwith respect to SEQ ID NO: 7.

TABLE 6 Mutations in reductase subunit C with improved activity.Mutations Activity L017R, W240E 2.71 L017Q 1.79 I028G 1.19 L038G 1.23E044R 1.60 E044G 1.23 G045R, S329G 1.16 T049L 1.99 D058K 1.19 K062L 1.70C064Q 1.17 C064A, R330W 1.15 L069A 1.30 E074R 1.41 K087L, Q236M 1.67L090Q, A216V 1.17 T097V 1.17 H098G 1.41 R100G, E288V 1.11 E110R, N308V1.31 A111V 1.21 L116V, K211V 1.27 V119C 1.10 Q125L 1.30 D133V, D286T1.35 C135T 1.55 R138Q, F208Q 1.16 E143K, P144C 1.67 I152S 1.17 P153H1.37 T155A, C279S 1.14 V157R 1.12 E174A 1.14 L180S 1.43 R184G 1.16 N191D1.85 G196V 1.22 P204S 1.15 G209W 1.23 R213G, W281R 1.50 A222G 1.13 R235G1.13 Q238G 1.14 A242V 1.57 P243G, E245D 1.12 N244G 1.14 E245M 1.68 T246M1.12 C324G 1.39

TABLE 7 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTmmoC gene. Incubation Titer/OD Time (normalized Mutation (hours) to WT)Q125L 21 1.81 E174A 21 1.75 N168A 21 1.74 V140W 16 1.25 N308G 16 1.19

Example 4: Mutagenesis of the Hydroxylase Beta Subunit

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the mmoY gene in pNH265 (SEQ ID NO: 2),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the mmoY gene instead of the mmoX gene.

Results are shown below in tables 8-9, wherein positions are numberedwith respect to SEQ ID NO: 4.

TABLE 8 Mutations in the hydroxylase beta subunit with improvedactivity. Mutation(s) Activity N032V 1.14 G036L 1.14 L046V 1.14 T047H,1.10 A151G T047V 1.14 P058N 1.28 A064G 1.26 T087V 1.12 V093G 1.11 Y109A1.14 Y109E 1.17 Y109F 1.11 Y109V 1.17 I133S 1.41 E143T 1.17 N146R 1.28N155G 1.30 Y157W 1.31 F160K 1.15 F160M 1.21 F160T 1.40 F160V 1.35 A162T,1.42 K202Q A167Q 1.25 W182M 1.12 G183A 1.31 G183S 1.18 F184S 1.14 K186N1.28 A201G, 1.29 G233R K202A 1.55 K202R, 1.24 A230G K202S 1.43 I203V,G273T 1.62 V204S 1.27 G206E 1.50 D208A, R318I 1.33 E209R 2.33 T211I 1.37A212G, 1.32 A330R A212G 2.79 V213G 1.48 V213W 1.26 P214V 1.29 A216G,1.53 G273V E217L 1.30 N220V 1.77 E222R, D305L 1.36 Y224M 1.34 K225G,1.99 R333V S226G 1.53 G233L 1.34 G233W 1.84 Q236G 1.61 Q236V 1.38 Q236W1.48 F239L 1.60 N242G 1.29 N242P, A291T 1.76 N242V 1.48 S244G, I281G1.35 A250C, 1.31 L325G F256W 1.25 V260C 1.44 Q266V 1.49 A269G 1.35P270R, D306Q 1.35 F272K 1.24 L276V 1.54 L303G 2.58 G304A 1.22 D305A 1.38D305G 1.58 D305R 1.74 D305W 1.62 D306E 1.61 D306R 1.66 E308G, 1.22 R314HS310R 1.66 S310W 1.75 D311A 1.39 D311G 1.83 R314G 1.26 R314Q 1.30 R318G1.34 G322R 1.45 T328G 1.44 I329W 2.79 F335G 1.61 M336G 1.34 L356G 1.58I364G 1.39 D372W 1.44

TABLE 9 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTmmoY gene. Methanol Titer/OD Mutation Incubation Time (hours)(normalized to WT) N146R 18 1.56 G233W 18 1.15 D305R 18 1.18 A212G 181.39 R314G 18.75 1.15 I329W 18 1.49

Example 5: Mutagenesis of Hydroxylase Gamma Subunit

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the mmoZ gene in pNH265 (SEQ ID NO: 2),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the mmoZ gene instead of the mmoX gene.

Results are shown below in tables 10 and 11, wherein positions arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 5.

TABLE 10 Mutations in hydroxylase gamma subunit with improved activity(measured as fold-improvement over unmutagenized sequence). Mutation(s)Activity D010R 1.21 D010V 1.60 N017F 1.13 N017W 1.41 K018A 1.10 K018E1.38 A020G 1.22 Q021H, I112V 1.38 N023A 1.11 N023D 1.11 N023E 1.32 N023G1.35 N023L 1.21 N023L, A117L 1.54 N023V 1.22 T024E 1.24 T024V, F043K1.42 K027G 1.33 K027Q 1.30 K027R 1.49 A029G 1.13 A029G, E154G 1.35 M031W1.43 K033V 1.18 Q034A 1.19 Q034K 1.34 T041G 1.15 F043S 1.10 F043V 1.26N045G 1.14 S046G 1.18 S046I 1.12 Y047S 1.37 Y047T 1.29 D050G 1.63 N051G1.72 N051V 1.14 D052G 1.81 Y053C 1.66 I056L 1.31 K063G 1.23 K063T 1.13V066D 1.33 L067E 1.31 R070E 1.77 R070G 1.11 R070V 1.34 H079E 1.28 K080M1.27 D103G, L166E 1.15 Q116S 1.25 Y127F 1.29 L129G 1.18 G136Q 1.64 G136S1.24 N144D 1.22 N144G 1.50 N144V 1.24 Y147D 1.30 E153G 1.46 E154G 1.42R156A 1.13 H165G 1.40 L166G 1.29

TABLE 11 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to theWild-type mmoZ gene. Methanol Titer/OD Mutation Incubation Time (hours)(normalized to WT) H165G 20.25 1.07 Y47S 20.25 1.12 Y47T 18.75 1.35 K27R18.75 1.20 M31W 18.75 1.23 G136Q 18.75 1.41 A29G, 18.75 1.40 E154G

Example 6: Mutagenesis of mmoD

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the mmoD gene in pNH265 (SEQ ID NO: 2),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the mmoD gene instead of the mmoX gene.

Results are shown below in tables 12 and 13, wherein positions arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 8.

TABLE 12 Mutations in MMOD. mmoD mutants Normalized Titer MutationImprovement S4R 1.17 A5S 1.16 Q7G 1.49 P8G 1.12 F9G 1.20 S10R 1.11 A13E1.24 D14R 1.20 F17G 1.25 E18R 1.30 P20G 1.22 R21L 1.23 P22R 2.10 A24G1.12 F27V 1.90 T40R 1.27 E60Q 2.70 S74A 1.15 T79G 1.39 T79S 1.71 H80G1.25 E89D 1.39 Q90S 1.24 A92P 1.26 P93A 1.36 D96R 1.17

TABLE 13 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTmmoD gene. Methanol Titer/OD Mutation Incubation Time (hours)(normalized to WT) E60Q 18.5 1.47

Example 7: Mutagenesis of groEL-2

The method described above (in Example 1) was applied in an identicalfashion to the mutagenesis of the groEL-2 gene in pNH265 (SEQ ID NO: 2),with the exception of the saturation mutagenesis primers being targetedto the groEL-2 gene instead of the mmoX gene.

Results are shown below in tables 14 and 15, wherein positions arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO: 9.

TABLE 14 Mutations in groEL-2. groEL-2 mutations Normalized TiterMutation Improvement A109E 1.43 A109P 1.94 G160A 1.75 D168V 1.39 A169S2.50 G171P 1.05 Q182W 2.12 L187V 1.31 T396L 1.33 V405G 1.27 V405D 1.31N409G 2.64 A438K 1.20 D444S 1.11 P461V 1.42 G466L 1.12 A478L 1.13 A478R1.14 A484E 1.11 A484G 1.06 N485T 1.17 G495H 1.15 V522L 1.31 G524T 1.16T529G 1.42

TABLE 15 Improved mutants discovered by screening with methane as asubstrate and measuring the methanol titers per OD600 relative to the WTgroEL-2 gene. Methanol Titer/OD Mutation Incubation Time (hours)(normalized to WT) N409G 18.5 1.52

All publications and patent applications cited in this specification areherein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication orpatent application were specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference. While the claimed subject matter has beendescribed in terms of various embodiments, the skilled artisan willappreciate that various modifications, substitutions, omissions, andchanges may be made without departing from the spirit thereof.

1. A mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system comprising at least onemutant subunit, wherein the at least one mutant subunit comprises one ormore mutations, such that the activity of the mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system is greater than the activity of a wild-type solublediiron monooxygenase system.
 2. The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem of claim 1, comprising a mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit whereinthe mutant hydroxylase alpha subunit comprises one or more mutations atone or more residue position(s): 3, 14, 25, 26, 32, 33, 35, 42, 44, 53,54, 55, 56, 57, 61, 130, 135, 154, 162, 163, 168, 216, 251, 262, 263,264, 277, 316, 322, 330, 347, 356, 374, 375, 381, 387, 393, 399, 405,419, 420, 422, 431, 432, 433, 434, 434, 444, 453, 456, 459, 469, 470,475, 480, 485, 493, 504, 505, 510, 513, 515, 525, and/or 526, whereinthe residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 3. 3.The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase hydroxylase alpha subunitaccording to claim 2, wherein the one or more mutations comprisessubstitutions at one or more of residue position(s): L3P, L14P, A25S,Q26G, L32P, Q33K, Q33R, F35L, N42R, T44A, T44S, A53G, N54K, N54L, E55A,E55S, T56A, T56G, K57G, K57S, K57T, K61A, K61R, A130C, A130G, A130H,A130T, N135S, V154L, G162C, Q163F, H168G, L216M, Y251M, Y251W, A262E,S263Q, A264Q, T277G, I316S, G322N, R330T, Y347G, T356C, T356G, T356M,A374E, N375H, D381R, D381S, Y387I, Y387L, R393C, R399D, L405G, R419L,R419S, V420C, Q422E, K431E, G432A, A433G, A433Q, A433T, S434G, S434N,Q444E, G453V, M456V, A459E, I469V, F470I, G475*, E480G, L485E, K493E,K493V, D504E, K505E, D510E, K513R, K513T, L515G, A525Q, F526C, F526G,F526L, and/or F526S, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO:
 3. 4. The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem of claim 1, comprising a mutant accessory protein subunit Bwherein the mutant accessory protein subunit B comprises one or moremutations at one or more residue position(s): 3, 15, 16, 38, 58, 69, 81,101, 102, 103, 106, 110, 112, 116, 118, 119, 120, 124, 126, 130, 131,134, 136, 138, and/or 139, wherein the residue position(s) are numberedwith respect to SEQ ID NO:
 6. 5. The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenaseaccessory protein subunit B of claim 4, wherein the one or moremutations comprises substitutions at one or more residue position(s):V3G, L15M, K16G, V38G, T58E, N69K, A81G, N101G, V102A, V102L, Y103H,L106V, S110A, T112G, T112V, A116S, A116T, T118E, T118G, L119E, G120A,G120E, T124C, T124G, T126S, M130D, M130V, G131S, R134A, R134G, R134W,L136A, D138S, Y139G, Y139S, and/or Y139V, wherein the residueposition(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 6. 6. The mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase system of claim 1, comprising a mutantreductase subunit C wherein the mutant reductase subunit C comprises oneor more mutations at one or more residue position(s): 17, 28, 38, 44,45, 49, 58, 62, 64, 69, 74, 87, 90, 97, 98, 100, 110, 111, 116, 119,125, 133, 135, 138, 143, 144, 152, 153, 155, 157, 174, 180, 184, 191,196, 204, 208, 209, 211, 213, 216, 222, 235, 236, 238, 240, 242, 243,244, 245, 246, 279, 281, 286, 288, 308, 324, 329, and/or 330, whereinthe residue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 7. 7.The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenase reductase subunit C of claim 6,wherein the one or more mutations comprises substitutions at one or moreresidue position(s): L17R, L17Q, I28G, L38G, E44G, E44R, G45R, T49L,D58K, K62L, C64A, C64Q, L69A, E74R, K87L, L90Q, T97V, H98G, R100G,E110R, A111V, L116V, V119C, Q125L, D133V, C135T, R138Q, E143K, P144C,I152S, P153H, T155A, V157R, E174A, L180S, R184G, N191D, G196V, P204S,F208Q, G209W, K211V, R213G, A216V, A222G, R235G, Q236M, Q238G, W240E,A242V, P243G, N244G, E245D, E245M, T246M, C279S, W281R, D286T, E288V,N308V, C324G, S329G, and/or R330W, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 7. 8. The mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system of claim 1, comprising a mutant hydroxylase betasubunit wherein the mutant hydroxylase beta subunit comprises one ormore mutations at one or more residue position(s): 32, 36, 46, 47, 58,64, 87, 93, 109, 133, 143, 146, 151, 155, 157, 160, 162, 202, 167, 182,183, 184, 186, 201, 202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209, 211, 212, 213, 214,216, 217, 220, 222, 224, 225, 226, 230, 233, 236, 239, 242, 244, 250,256, 260, 266, 269, 270, 272, 273, 276, 281, 291, 303, 304, 305, 306,308, 310, 311, 314, 318, 322, 325, 328, 329, 330, 333, 335, 336, 356,364, and/or 372, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO:
 4. 9. The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasehydroxylase beta subunit of claim 8, wherein the one or more mutationscomprises substitutions at one or more residue position(s): N32V, G36L,L46V, T47H, T47V, P58N, A64G, T87V, V93G, Y109A, Y109E, Y109F, Y109V,I133S, E143T, N146R, A151G, N155G, Y157W, F160K, F160M, F160T, F160V,A162T, 202, A167Q, W182M, G183A, G183S, F184S, K186N, A201G, K202A,K202Q, K202R, K202S, I203V, V204S, G206E, D208A, E209R, T211I, A212G,V213G, V213W, P214V, A216G, E217L, N220V, E222R, Y224M, K225G, S226G,A230G, G233L, G233R, G233W, Q236G, Q236V, Q236W, F239L, N242G, N242P,N242V, S244G, A250C, F256W, V260C, Q266V, A269G, P270R, F272K, G273T,G273V, L276V, I281G, A291T, L303G, G304A, D305A, D305G, D305L, D305R,D305W, D306E, D306Q, D306R, E308G, S310R, S310W, D311A, D311G, R314G,R314H, R314Q, R318G, R3181, G322R, L325G, T328G, 1329W, A330R, R333V,F335G, M336G, L356G, I364G, and/or D372W, wherein the residueposition(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 4. 10. The mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase system, according to claim 1, comprising amutant hydroxylase gamma subunit wherein the mutant hydroxylase gammasubunit comprises one or more mutations at one or more residueposition(s): 10, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 33, 34, 41, 43, 45,46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 63, 66, 67, 70, 79, 80, 103, 112, 116, 117,127, 129, 136, 144, 147, 153, 154, 156, 165, and/or 166, wherein theresidue position(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 5. 11. Themutant soluble diiron monooxygenase hydroxylase gamma subunit of claim10, wherein the one or more mutations comprises substitutions at one ormore residue position(s): D10R, D10V, N17F, N17W, K18A, K18E, A20G,Q21H, N23A, N23D, N23E, N23G, N23L, N23V, T24E, T24V, K27G, K27Q, K27R,A29G, M31W, K33V, Q34A, Q34K, T41G, F43K, F43S, F43V, N45G, S46G, S46I,Y47S, Y47T, D50G, N51G, N51V, D52G, Y53C, I56L, K63G, K63T, V66D, L67E,R70E, R70G, R70V, H79E, K80M, D103G, I112V, Q116S, 1117L, Y127F, L129G,G136Q, G136S, N144D, N144G, N144V, Y147D, E153G, E154G, R156A, H165G,L166E, and/or L166G, wherein the residue position(s) are numbered withrespect to SEQ ID NO:
 5. 12. The mutant soluble diiron monooxygenasesystem of claim 1, comprising a mutant subunit D wherein the mutantsubunit D comprises one or more mutations at one or more residueposition(s): 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 27, 40,60, 74, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92, 93, and/or 96, wherein the residueposition(s) are numbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 8. 13. The mutantsoluble diiron monooxygenase subunit D of claim 12, wherein the one ormore mutations comprises substitutions at one or more residueposition(s): S4R, A5S, Q7G, P8G, F9G, F9G, S10R, A13E, D14R, F17G, F17G,E18R, P20G, R21L, P22R, A24G, F27V, T40R, E60Q, S74A, T79G, T79S, H80G,E89D, Q90S, A92P, P93A, and/or D96R, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 8. 14. The mutant soluble diironmonooxygenase system of claim 1, comprising a mutant protein foldingchaperone groEL-2 wherein the mutant protein folding chaperone groEL-2comprises one or more mutations at one or more residue position(s): 109,160, 168, 169, 171, 182, 187, 396, 405, 409, 438, 444, 461, 466, 478,484, 485, 495, 522, 524, and/or 529, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 9. 15. The mutant protein foldingchaperone groEL-2 of claim 14, wherein the one or more mutationscomprises substitutions at one or more residue position(s): A109E,A109P, G160A, D168V, A169S, G171P, Q182W, L187V, T396L, V405G, V405D,N409G, A438K, D444S, P461V, G466L, A478L, A478R, A484E, A484G, N485T,G495H, V522L, G524T, and/or T529G, wherein the residue position(s) arenumbered with respect to SEQ ID NO:
 9. 16. One or more isolated nucleicacids encoding one or more polypeptides comprising or consisting of themutant soluble diiron monooxygenase system of claim
 1. 17. One or morevectors comprising or consisting of the one or more isolated nucleicacids of claim
 16. 18. One or more host cells comprising or consistingof the one or more vectors of claim
 17. 19. The one or more host cellsof claim 18, wherein the one or more host cells comprises a prokaryoticcell.
 20. The one or more host cells of claim 19, wherein theprokaryotic cell comprises one or more of Escherichia coli,Corynebacterium glutamicum, and/or Bacillus methanolicus.